Impact of Frailty on Depression

Impact of Frailty on first gearBackgroundWith increasing life expectancy, diseases associated with old hop on have increased in growing proportion in recent decades. (1) The integration of valetudinarianism measures in clinical practice is crucial for the development of interventions against age-re recentlyd conditions (in weakenicular, disability) in older persons. Multiple instruments have been developed all(prenominal)place the last years in order to capture this geriatric multidimensional syndrome characterized by decreased give and di secondished resistance to stressors and render it objectively measurable. (2) Frailty is not uncommon to the medical contemporary query nowadays. Several possible definitions were given by different investigateers in the past to define frailty. One and ordinarily used definition of physical frailty was given by fried et al, Frailty was defined as a clinical syndrome in which three or more than(prenominal) of the following criteria wer e present unintentional exercising weight loss (10lbs in past year), self-reported exhaustion, weakness (grip strength), slow walking speed, and low physical drill. (3) Frailty in older people was again classified into prefrail those having one or two criteria given by Fried et al, and frail elderly having three or more criteria as per Fried et al definition. Medical Syndrome equal frailty, keeps older adults at increased risk of adverse health pop outcomes when exposed to a stressor. (4) Stressors lead to correct across multiple physiological systems incrementally and argon associated with greater depressive symptoms and disability. (5)Depression is not a recipe part of ageing process (6) and is a potentially life-threatening disorder that fall upons hundreds of millions of people across the world. (7) Depression is unremarkably seen in frail older people as they whitethorn face widowhood or loss of buy the farm or independence or bereavement. Depression, if left untrea ted, complicates other chronic conditions such as heart disease, diabetes, stroke, and so on It whitethorn similarly incur health c atomic number 18 costs and lots accompanies functional impairment and disability. (6) divers(a) systematic recaps and journal articles has demonstrated acquaintance in the midst of picture and frailty. In this review, focus has made to cotton up the subroutine of stressors that leads pathways linking feeling and frailty.Prevalence of frailty, depression and their co-occurrence in older individualsSeveral studies have been carried out to measure the preponderance of frailty in community-dwelling older people as well as those in hospital settings. Majority of the studies have used similar criteria to measure frailty among older adults. Systematic review of frailty preponderance worldwide concluded that 10.7% of community-dwelling adults aged 65 years were frail and 41.6% pre-frail. (8) It was noted that prevalence figures varied substantially between studies (ranging from 4% to 59%) using different criteria to measure frailty. (6) Data from mountain of Health, Aging and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) in 2004 covering more than 10 European countries, showed prevalence of frailty and pre-frailty in 65+ age root word as 17.0% (15.3 18.7) were frail and 42.3% (40.5 44.1) were pre-frail. (9) The prevalence of frailty in community dwelling older people ranged from 17%-31% in Brazil, 15% in Mexico, 5%-31% in China, and 21%-44% in Russia. However, prevalence of frailty was again ground much higher in institutionalized older patients as 32% in India and 49% in Brazil. Findings of study in outpatient clinics reported prevalence of frailty was 55-71% in Brazil and 28% in Peru. (10) Above finding suggests that older people of low- and middle-income countries were found frail in authoritative proportions which imply policy and health c ar provisions for this ageing population.Depression varies in its prevalence in different stud ies and settings. Prevalence of depressive symptoms was found 14% in Brazilian adults (11), 9% in United States general population (12) and 23.6% (95% CI 20.3-27.2%) in Chinese older adults. (13) Depressive symptoms were most usually associated with women (11) (12) (13) and single adults (i.e. divorced, unmarried or widowed) than in married older adults. (13) Prevalence of depressive illness rises further in the event of associated co-morbid condition such as open firecer, diabetes, and hypertensionN1. Median prevalence of minor depression was 14.4% and 10.4%, in medical settings and community-based setting, respectivelyN2. (14) The median global prevalence of serious depression in the elderly population is around 1% 5%. (15) (16) (17)Depressed elders show many phenotypical expressions of frailty and misdeed versa. Coexistence of both depression and frailty among older people has been investigated in several studies. (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) A recent systematic review exami ned the relationship between depression and frailty found serious depression in 4 16% of frail individuals who argon aged 60 and over. (6) However, this percentage rises to 35% in older population with age 75 years or more. (6) (24) A study conducted within framework of prospective cohort study, the Netherlands Study of Depression in Older Persons (NESDO) found that the prevalence of physical frailty was signifi basetly higher in the depressed group in comparison with non-depressed (27.2% vs 9.1%, p4) was present in as high as 46.5% of the frail subjects. Depressed patients often exhibit symptoms that interfere with their ability to function normally for longer duration which facilitates progression of frailty syndrome. (6) Therefore, in order to improve health and preventing frailty depression in elderly, it is essential for researchers and practitioners to understand the linking phenomena for further research and developing treatment options.Main pathways linking frailty and dep ressionSeveral studies have identified the possible physiological pathways that link between frailty and depression in older adults. Of which, the main hypothetical pathways identified were vascular depression, chronic inflammation, Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis dysregulation and accelerated cellular ageing.Vascular depression hypothesisAlexopoulos et al. (26) proposed that cerebrovascular disease may predispose, precipitate, or perpetuate some geriatric depressive syndromes. This statement was supported by another study of vascular depression based on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) conducted by Krishnan KR et al. (27). Bivariate analyses and a fully adjusted logistic regression model in MRI study revealed that older age, late age at onset, and nonpsychotic subtype occurred more often in patients with vascular depression than in those with nonvascular depression. He also observed that anhedonia and functional disability were seen somewhat more often in patients with va scular depression.There atomic number 18 several clinical studies that examined vascular disease in depression. Some studies (28) found a highly significant increase in physical illness and vascular risk factors in the late onset group, after adjusting for age when they compared early and late onset late-life depression. (29) On the other hand, several others found no association of depression with cerebrovascular score (30) and vascular disease (31). Depression may occur as a result of vascular disease in a significant subpopulation of elderly persons. (32) Depression has a two-way association with vascular diseases and plausible mechanisms exist which explain how depression might increase these vascular diseases and vice versa. Thomas AJ et al summarized that coronary artery disease (CAD) and stroke are all associated with high grade of depression and depression is an independent risk factor for the subsequent development of CAD and stroke. (29)Mechanism of vascular depression can be hypothesized as reduced cerebral production line flow (CBF) in resolution to given stressors. Normal CBF in adult humans is about 60ml/100 grams/min and regionally, about 70ml/100g/min in gray effect and 20ml/100g/min in white matter. Between the ages of 20 to 65, normal CBF largely declines about 15-20%. It is generally accepted that when CBF take a crapes 30ml/100g/min, neurologic symptoms can appear and when CBF falls to 15-20ml/100g/min, electrical failure or irreversible neuronal modify can occur even within minutes. (33) Blood flow to the hotshot is influenced by systemic hemodynamics and cerebro-vascular auto-regulation, with cerebral arteries contracting or dilating as arterial pressure changes. These processes interact to admit stable perfusion. (33) However, these processes are impaired in the context of vascular disease hypertension, diabetes, and atherosclerosis lead to vascular wall hypertrophy, reduced arterial lumen diameter, reduced arterial distensibi lity, and endothelial cell dysfunction. This affects cerebral blood flow.Mild CBF reduction may impair cognitive and affective processes, while greater CBF reduction may make water ischemic injury. The subcortical white matter is particularly sensitive to these changes because it is supplied by terminal arterioles with circumscribed collateral flow and so susceptible to infarction delinquent to impaired autoregulation. Greater white matter hyperintensities (WMH) severity may be a marker of broader deficits in perfusion and autoregulation. Thus, risk factors for vascular disease can lead to subclinical cerebrovascular disease throughout the brain.Katz (2004) theorizes that cerebrovascular disease that causes prefrontal white-matter hyperintensities and vascular depression may also lead to posterior white matter hyperintensities, resulting in characteristics of frailty such as falls, slowness, and weakness. (34) He further stated that if the effects are anterior, the manifestations may include depression. However, if the effects are more posterior, the manifestations may be in the form of disturbances of gait and balance. Several other studies had compared depressed elderly with rule group and demonstrated an increase in deep white matter hyperintensities (DWMH) in depression (35) (36) (37), nevertheless no or not significant association with encircling(prenominal) vascular lesion (PVH) (36) (37). The cerebral WM contains fiber pathways that extend axons linking cerebral cortical areas with each other and with subcortical structures, facilitating the distributed neural circuits that subserve sensorimotor function, intellect, and emotion. The vascular depression hypothesis postulates that altered pettishness regulation and cognitive dysfunction in the elderly are due to subclinical cerebrovascular ischemia that disrupts frontostriatal neural circuits. (38) (39) This disruption of fronto-striatal neural circuits leads to disconnection syndrome that corresp onds to the clinical and neuropsychological compose of LLD. (40) Prefrontal WMH also leads to executive dysfunction which affects planning, self-monitoring, attention, reaction inhibition, co-ordination of complex cognition (as in Trail making Test) and motor control. This leads to frailty.Chronic Inflammation hypothesisAging- and disease-related processes foster pro subversive states in older individuals. Administration of cytokines or induction of peripheral inflammation results in an inflammatory response, which in turn is correlated with fatigue, slowed reaction time, and mood reduction. Even without medical illness, depressed individuals exhibit increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines and reduced anti-inflammatory cytokine levels.Proinflammatory cytokines affect monoamine neurotransmitter pathways, including indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase upregulation and kynurenine pathway activation. This results in decreased tryptophan and serotonin and increased synthesis of detrimenta l tryptophan catabolites that promote hippocampal damage and apoptosis. Cytokines, including IL-1, also reduce extracellular serotonin levels by activating the serotonin transporter.Effects of the central nervous system inflammatory cascade on neural plasticityMicroglias are primary recipients of peripheral inflammatory signals that reach the brain.Activated microglia, in turn, initiate an inflammatory cascade whereby release of relevant cytokines, chemokines, inflammatory mediators, and reactive nitrogen and oxygen species (RNS and ROS, respectively) induces mutual activation of astroglia, thereby amplifying inflammatory signals within the CNS.Cytokines, including IL-1, IL-6, and tumour necrosis factor-alpha, as well as IFN-alpha and IFN-gamma (from T cells), induce the enzyme, IDO, which breaks down TRP, the primary precursor of 5-HT (serotonin), into QUIN (quinolinic dot), a potent NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) agonist and stimulator of GLU (glutamate) release.Astrocytic functi ons are compromised due to excessive exposure to cytokines, QUIN, and RNS/ROS, at last leading to impaired glutamate reuptake, and increased glutamate release, as well as decreased production of neurotrophic factors.Of note, oligodendroglia are especially sensitive to the CNS inflammatory cascade and induce damage due to overexposure to cytokines such as TNF-alpha, which has a direct toxic effect on these cells, potentially contributing to apoptosis and demyelination.The confluence of excessive astrocytic glutamate release, its inadequate reuptake by astrocytes and oligodendroglia, activation of NMDA receptors by QUIN, increased glutamate binding and activation of extrasynaptic NMDA receptors (accessible to glutamate released from glial elements and associated with inhibition of BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) expression), decline in neurotrophic support, and aerophilic stress ultimately disrupt neural plasticity through excitotoxicity and apoptosis.5-HT, serotonin BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor CNS, central nervous system GLU, glutamate IDO, indolamine 2,3 dioxygenase IFN, interferon IL, interleukin NMDA, N-methyl-D-aspartate QUIN, quinolinic acid RNS, reactive nitrogen species ROS, reactive oxygen species TNF, tumor necrosis factor TRP, tryptophan.Regarding LLD, the aging process disrupts resistant function, increasing peripheral immune activity and shifting the CNS into a proinflammatory state. Elevated peripheral cytokine levels are associated with depressive symptoms in older adults, with the most consistent finding being for IL-6, but also implicating IL-1, IL-8 and TNF.Proinflammatory states in older adults are associated with cognitive deficits, including poorer executive function, poorer memory performance, worse global cognition, and sharp decline in cognition. Finally, greater IL-6 and C-reactive protein levels are associated with greater WMH burden.In LLD, ischemic lesions are also more likely to occur in the dorsolateral pref rontal cortex (DLPFC), Similarly, depressed elders exhibit increased expression of cellular adhesion molecules (CAMs) in the DLPFC. CAMs are inflammatory markers whose expression is increased by ischemia, supporting a role for ischemia in LLD and highlighting the relationship between vascular and inflammatory processes.HPA dysregulationWhen the HPA axis is activated by stressors, such as an immune response, high levels of glucocorticoids are released into the body and suppress immune response by inhibiting the expression of proinflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL-1, TNF alpha, and IFN gamma) and increasing the levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13) in immune cells, such as monocytes and neutrophils. excessiveness stress also appears to play a role in the development of depression and can cause dysregulation of the HPA axis. Patients with major depression have been found to have elevated plasma and urinary cortisol levels as well as elevated corticotropin-rele asing hormone and decreased levels of BDNF.Prolonged severe stress is thought to damage hippocampal neurons and to reduce the inhibitory control exerted by the HPA axis in regulating glucocorticoid levels.During an immune response, proinflammatory cytokines (e.g. IL-1) are released into peripheral circulatory system and can pass through the blood brain barrier where they can interact with the brain and activate HPA axis. Interactions between the proinflammatory cytokines and the brain can alter the metabolic activity of neurotransmitters and cause symptoms such as fatigue, depression, and mood changes.Increased levels of aldosterone in the circulation stimulate excessive production of collagen, which leads to fibrosis of tissue paper or organ whereas low levels of adrenal androgen dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate and insulin-like growth factor 1 are associated with frailty. Further, cortisol may mimic the effects of aldosterone. Elevated serum levels of cortisol and aldosterone are in dependent predictors of mortality rate in patients with heart failure.Accelerated Cellular Aging hypothesisAccelerated cellular aging, as thrifty by telomere length (TL) shortening, might also be linked to depression and frailty.At both ends of every DNA strand in a human cell is a telomere.Telomeres prevent chromosomes from becoming frayed, fusing into rings, or binding with other DNA.Telomeres are specialized nucleoprotein structures located at the end of eukaryotic chromosomes. They play a critical role in controlling cell proliferation and maintenance of chromosomal stability.As part of bodys normal aging process, each time a cell divides the telomeres in your DNA get shorter. Add oxidative stress to the mix and telomeres shorten even more rapidly. Oxidative stress is the effect of destructive reactions in your bodys cells caused by too many free radicals or atoms/molecules that have unpaired electrons. In their search for an electron to make them whole, they destroy other cel ls. Free radicals come from environmental toxins, such as pollution, chemicals, drugs and radiation, and even naturally occur in your own body when you exercise. Antioxidants fight free radicals and stem the causes of oxidative stress.Eventually, bodys cells are uneffective to divide (or reproduce) and simply die. Eventually, this instability leads to tissue breakdown potentially leading to premature aging.Any trying condition or anxiety leads to feeling of depression which in turn initiates physiologic body response that includes, increase in stress-induced glucocorticoid release and oxidative stress. Unhealthy behaviour will also stimulate inflammatory response which lead to release of cytokine and can affect telomere length.